I-Silicone: Umhlahlandlela Ophelele Womlando, Ikhemistry Nokuphepha

Ama-Silicone angama-polymers afaka noma yikuphi okungenayo, Isakhi inhlanganisela eyakhiwe ngamayunithi aphindaphindayo e-siloxane, okuyiqembu elisebenzayo lama-athomu amabili e-silicon ne-athomu elilodwa lomoya-mpilo elivame ukuhlangana nekhabhoni kanye/noma i-hydrogen. Ziyakwazi ukumelana nokushisa futhi zifana nerabha, futhi zisetshenziswa kuma-sealants, okunamathela, izinto zokuthambisa, imithi, izitsha zokupheka, kanye nokufaka ukushisa okushisayo nogesi.

Kulesi sihloko, sizofaka izakhiwo ze-silicone kanye nenqubo yokukhiqiza yayo.

Konke Odinga Ukukwazi NgeSilicone

I-Silicone yi-polymer material eyenziwe ngama-molecule abizwa ngokuthi ama-siloxanes. Kuyinto eyingqayizivele eyakhiwe nge-silicon, isakhi semvelo esitholakala esihlabathini nasemadwaleni, nomoya-mpilo. Lapho lezi zakhi ezimbili zihlanganiswa, zakha inhlanganisela equkethe amaketanga amade ama-monomer aphindayo, ahlanganiswe ndawonye ukuze akhe umkhiqizo wokugcina.

Ikhiqizwa Kanjani I-Silicone?

I-silicone ivame ukukhiqizwa ngokuxuba i-silicon ehlanzekile nezinye izinhlanganisela ukwakha i-silicone compound. Inhlanganisela ibe isidluliswa ochungechungeni lwezinqubo zesayensi ukuze kwakhiwe umkhiqizo wokugcina owakhiwe ngamaketanga amade ama-monomer aphindayo. Lawa maketango ahlanganiswe ndawonye ukuze akhe i-polymer eyaziwa ngokuthi i-silicone.

Yiziphi Izindlela Eziyinhloko Zokusebenzisa I-Silicone?

I-Silicone iyimpahla ethandwayo esetshenziswa emikhiqizweni eminingi ehlukene. Ezinye zezinto ezivame ukusetshenziswa kakhulu ze-silicone zihlanganisa:

• Ukudala ama-sealants nama-adhesives angasetshenziswa ukuhlanganisa izinto ezahlukene ndawonye.
• Ukukhiqiza izinto zokugcoba ezingasetshenziswa ukunciphisa ukungqubuzana phakathi kwezingxenye ezihambayo.
• Ukudala ukufakwa kwe-thermal kanye nogesi okungasetshenziswa ukuvikela izinto ezibucayi ekushiseni nakugesi.
• Ukwenza izitsha zokupheka neminye imikhiqizo yasekhishini engenabo ubuthi futhi imelana nokushisa.
• Ukudala izinsiza zezokwelapha nezifakelo eziphephile nezisebenzayo ezigulini.

Uyini Umehluko Phakathi Kwe-Silicone ne-Silicone?

I-Silicone iyimpahla eyodwa, kanti ama-silicone ayiqembu lezinto ezakhiwe nge-silicone. Ama-silicone ngokuvamile aqinile futhi ahlala isikhathi eside kune-silicone, futhi avame ukusetshenziswa emikhiqizweni edinga izinga eliphezulu lekhwalithi nokusebenza.

I-Evolution ye-Silicone: Ukusuka ku-Crystalline Silicon kuya Ekukhiqizeni Kwesimanje

Ngo-1854, uHenry Sainte-Claire Deville wathola i-silicon crystalline, okwatholakala okuphawulekayo emhlabeni wezinto zokwakha nezinhlanganisela. I-silicon iyingxenye yamakhemikhali enophawu Si kanye nenombolo ye-athomu engu-14. Iqinile, i-brittle crystalline solid ne-blue-grey metallic lustre, futhi iyi-tetravalent metalloid kanye ne-semiconductor. I-silicon iyisici sesishiyagalombili esivame kakhulu endaweni yonke ngobuningi, kodwa ayitholakali ngesimo sayo esihlanzekile ngokwemvelo.

Ukuzalwa Kwama-Silicone: Ucwaningo lukaHyde kanye Nokuqanjwa Ka-Kipping

Ngo-1930, u-JF Hyde wenza ucwaningo lokuqala lokukhiqiza ama-silicone ezentengiselwano. Kamuva, ngo-1940, usokhemisi oyiNgisi, uFrederich Stanley Kipping, esebenzisa ucwaningo lukaHyde, wanikeza le nto igama elithi “silicones” ngoba “ayengama-sticky messes”. U-Kipping wayeyingqalabutho emkhakheni we-organic chemistry futhi waziwa kakhulu ngomsebenzi wakhe we-chemistry of silicones. Ama-Silicone yiqembu lama-polymers okwenziwa akhiwe amayunithi aphindaphindayo e-siloxane, okuwuchungechunge lwama-silicon nama-athomu omoya-mpilo ashintshana ngamaqembu ezinto eziphilayo axhunywe kuma-athomu e-silicon.

I-Chemistry yama-Silicones: Isakhiwo namaketanga e-Polymer

Ama-Silicone empeleni angama-polymer aneyunithi ephindayo ye-siloxane. Iyunithi ye-siloxane iqukethe i-athomu ye-silicon enamathiselwe kuma-athomu amabili omoya-mpilo, wona anamathele emaqenjini ezinto eziphilayo. Amaqembu ezinto eziphilayo angaba yi-methyl, ethyl, phenyl, noma amanye amaqembu. Amayunithi e-siloxane angahlanganiswa ndawonye ukuze akhe amaketanga aqondile noma amaketanga anamagatsha. Amaketango angabuye axhunywe ukuze akhe inethiwekhi enezinhlangothi ezintathu. Izinto ezitholakalayo ziyi-polymer ye-silicone enezinhlobonhlobo zezakhiwo.

Ukukhiqizwa Kwesimanje Kwe-Silicones: I-Corning, i-Dow, ne-Hydrolysis

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Ukukhiqizwa kwesimanje kwe-silicone kuhilela izindlela ezihlukahlukene, kodwa indlela evamile kakhulu isekelwe ku-hydrolysis yama-silicon compounds. Izinhlanganisela ze-silicon ezifana ne-silicon tetrachloride (SiCl4) noma i-dimethyldichlorosilane (CH3) i-2SiCl2 isabela ngamanzi ukukhiqiza ama-siloxane. Ama-siloxanes abe esenziwe i-polymerized ukuze akhe ama-silicone polymers. Inqubo ingenziwa kusetshenziswa ama-catalyst ahlukahlukene, okuhlanganisa ama-acid afana ne-HCl noma izisekelo ezifana ne-NaOH.

Izakhiwo Zama-Silicone: Aqinile, Angavimbeli Amanzi, futhi Afaka ugesi ngogesi

Ama-Silicone anezinhlobonhlobo zezakhiwo, kuye ngokuthi amaqembu e-organic axhunywe kuma-athomu e-silicon kanye nobude bamaketanga e-polymer. Ezinye zezakhiwo ze-silicone zihlanganisa:

• Inamandla futhi iqinile
• Ayimelani namanzi
• Ukuvikela ugesi
• Imelana namazinga okushisa aphezulu naphansi
• Inert ngamakhemikhali
• Iyahambisana

Ama-Silicones asetshenziswa ezinhlobonhlobo zezicelo, kufaka phakathi:

• Ama-sealants nama-adhesives
• Amafutha kanye nama-coatings
• Imishini yezokwelapha nezigxivizo
• Ukufakwa kukagesi namabhodi wesekethe
• Izingxenye zezimoto kanye ne-aerospace
• Imikhiqizo yokunakekelwa komuntu siqu kanye nezimonyo

Umehluko Phakathi Kwama-Silicone namanye Ama-Polymers

Ama-Silicone ahlukile kwamanye ama-polymer ngezindlela eziningana:

• Iyunithi ephindayo kuma-silicones i-siloxane, kuyilapho amanye ama-polymer enamayunithi aphindaphindayo ahlukene.
• Ibhondi ye-silicon-oksijeni ku-siloxane inamandla kune-carbon-carbon bond kwamanye ama-polymer, enikeza ama-silicone izakhiwo zawo ezihlukile.
• Ama-Silicones amelana kakhulu namazinga okushisa aphezulu naphansi kunamanye ama-polymer.
• Ama-Silicones amelana kakhulu namanzi kunamanye ama-polymer.

Ikusasa Lama-Silicone: Ucwaningo Oluthuthukile Nemikhiqizo Emisha

Ukusetshenziswa kwama-silicone kuyaqhubeka kukhula, futhi imikhiqizo emisha ithuthukiswa ngaso sonke isikhathi. Ezinye zezindawo zocwaningo oluthuthukisiwe kuma-silicone zihlanganisa:

• Ukuthuthukiswa kwama-catalyst amasha e-polymerization yama-siloxanes
• Ukusetshenziswa kwe-silyl acetates nezinye izinhlanganisela ukuguqula izakhiwo ze-silicone
• Ukusetshenziswa kwe-asidi ne-base catalyzed reactions ukukhiqiza izinhlobo ezintsha zama-silicone polymers
• Ukusetshenziswa kwe-silicone polymers ekwakheni ingilazi nezinye izinto

Igama elithi "silicones" lihlala liyigama elivamile elisetshenziselwa ukuchaza izinto ezihlukahlukene ezisekelwe ku-silicone, futhi izakhiwo zalezi zinto ziyaqhubeka zihlolisiswa futhi ziqondwe.

Ukusuka Esantini Kuya Ku-Silicone: Inqubo Ethakazelisayo Yokukhiqiza I-Silicone

I-Silicone iyi-polymer esetshenziswa kabanzi ngezindlela nemikhiqizo ehlukahlukene. Inqubo yokufeza amafomu afunwayo e-silicone ihlanganisa uchungechunge lwezinyathelo ezidinga izinto ezifanele kanye namabhulokhi wokwakha. Nazi izingxenye nezinyathelo ezibandakanyekayo enqubweni yokukhiqiza:

• I-Silicon: Isakhiwo esiyinhloko se-silicone i-silicon, okungenye yezinto ezivame kakhulu emhlabeni. Ihlukaniswa ngokugaya isihlabathi se-quartz bese ifaka ukushisa kuyo, ifinyelela amazinga okushisa afinyelela ku-2000 degrees Celsius.

• I-Methyl Chloride: I-silicon ixutshwe ne-methyl chloride, eyaziwa ngokuthi i-chloromethane. Lokhu kusabela kukhiqiza i-chlorosilane, eyisihluthulelo esimaphakathi ekukhiqizeni i-silicone.

• Ukushisisa: I-chlorosilane ibe isishisiswe ukuze yakhe i-dimethyldichlorosilane, eyisandulela se-silicone. Le nqubo ihilela ukusebenzisa ukushisa kumxube, okwenza ukusabela kusebenze futhi kususe i-hydrochloric acid.

• I-Polymer Processing: I-dimethyldichlorosilane bese ixutshwa namanzi ukuze yakhe i-polymer. Le polymer ingaphinde icutshungulwe ukuze kuzuzwe izinhlobo ezahlukene ze-silicone, njenge-elastomers, evame ukusetshenziswa ekukhiqizeni imikhiqizo yenjoloba.

Ukubaluleka Kokulawulwa Kwekhwalithi Ekukhiqizeni I-Silicone

Ukukhiqizwa kwe-silicone kudinga izinga eliphezulu lokulawula izinga ukuze kuqinisekiswe ukuthi umkhiqizo wokugcina uhlangabezana nezindinganiso ezidingekayo. Abakhiqizi kudingeka baqinisekise ukuthi izingxenye ezifanele ziyasetshenziswa enqubweni yokukhiqiza nokuthi inqubo yenziwa ngaphansi kwezimo ezifanele. Nazi ezinye zezinto abakhiqizi okudingeka bazicabangele:

• Izinga lokushisa: Inqubo yokukhiqiza idinga izinga lokushisa eliphezulu, elingathinta ikhwalithi yomkhiqizo wokugcina. Abakhiqizi badinga ukuqinisekisa ukuthi izinga lokushisa lilawulwa ngokucophelela ukuvimbela noma yimuphi umonakalo ku-silicone.

• Ukuhlukanisa Umthamo: Inqubo yokukhiqiza ihilela ukuhlukanisa umthamo wokusabela ukuze kuqinisekiswe ukuthi inani elifanele le-silicone liyakhiqizwa. Lokhu kudinga ukuqapha ngokucophelela nokulawula ukusabela.

• I-Crosslinking: Ezinye izinhlobo ze-silicone zidinga ukuxhumanisa ukuze kuzuzwe izakhiwo ezidingekayo. Lokhu kuhlanganisa ukuhlanganisa amaketanga e-polymer ukuze kwakhiwe into eqinile.

Amafomu Ajwayelekile E-Silicone Emakethe

I-silicone ivame ukutholakala ezinhlobonhlobo zemikhiqizo, kusukela ezitsheni zasekhishini kuya emishini yezokwelapha. Nazi ezinye zezinhlobo ezivame kakhulu ze-silicone emakethe:

• I-Low-Density Silicone: Lolu hlobo lwe-silicone luvame ukusetshenziswa ekukhiqizeni ama-sealant nama-adhesives.

• Ama-Elastomers: Lawa asetshenziswa kakhulu ekwenzeni imikhiqizo yenjoloba, njengama-gaskets nama-O-rings.

• I-Silicone Yokushisa Okuphezulu: Lolu hlobo lwe-silicone lusetshenziswa ezinhlelweni ezidinga ukumelana nezinga lokushisa eliphezulu, njengasembonini ye-aerospace.

I-Chemistry yeSilicone: Ukuhlola Izakhiwo Nokwakhiwa Kwalesi Sisetshenziswa Esihlukahlukene

I-Silicone yinto yokwenziwa eyenziwe nge-silicon, umoya-mpilo, i-carbon, nama-athomu e-hydrogen. Iwuhlobo lwe-polymer, okusho ukuthi yakhiwe ngamaketanga amade ama-molecule akhiwa ngenqubo ebizwa ngokuthi i-polymerization. I-silicone ijwayele ukwakhiwa ngendlela ebizwa ngokuthi i-hydrolysis, ehlanganisa ukusabela kwe-silicon compounds ngamanzi ukukhiqiza ama-siloxane.

I-Chemistry ye-Siloxanes kanye ne-Silicone Polymers

Ama-Siloxanes angamabhlokhi wokwakha ama-silicone polymers. Akhiwa ngokusabela kwenhlanganisela ye-silicon ngamanzi, ekhiqiza uchungechunge lwama-silicon nama-athomu omoya-mpilo. Iketango le-siloxane eliwumphumela lingabuye lilungiswe ngokungeza amaqembu ezinto eziphilayo, njengamaqembu e-methyl noma e-phenyl, ukuze kukhiqizwe izinhlobonhlobo eziningi zama-silicone polymers.

Enye yama-silicone polymers avame kakhulu i-polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), eyakhiwe ngokungeza amaqembu e-methyl ochungechungeni lwe-siloxane. I-PDMS iqinile, i-crystalline eqinile ecwebezelayo ngokucwebezela kwensimbi eluhlaza okwesibhakabhaka, futhi iyilungu leqembu le-14 kuthebula le-periodic. Kuwuhlobo lwe-silicone oluvame ukusetshenziswa ekukhiqizeni amasekhethi e-elekthronikhi neminye imikhiqizo edinga izinto eziqinile, ezikwazi ukumelana namanzi.

Izakhiwo zeSilicone kanye nokusetshenziswa kwayo Okuvamile

I-Silicone inezinto eziningi eziyingqayizivele eziyenza ibe yinto ethandwayo yezinhlelo zokusebenza ezihlukahlukene. Ezinye zezinto ezibalulekile ze-silicone zihlanganisa:

• Ukuzinza okuphezulu kokushisa
• Ukumelana kwamanzi
• Ubuthi obuphansi
• Izakhiwo ezinhle zokuvikela ugesi
• Ukungena kwegesi ephezulu

Lezi zakhiwo zenza i-silicone ibe yinto ethandwayo yemikhiqizo ehlukahlukene, kuhlanganise:

• Amadivayisi ezokwelapha
• Izingxenye zezimoto
• Izakhi ze-elekthronikhi
• Ama-sealants nama-adhesives
• Imikhiqizo yokunakekelwa komuntu siqu

Ikusasa Lokukhiqiza Nentuthuko Ye-Silicone

Ukukhiqizwa nokuthuthukiswa kwe-silicone kuhlala kuyindawo esebenzayo yocwaningo losokhemisi nososayensi bezinto ezibonakalayo. Izindlela ezintsha zokukhiqiza ama-silicone polymers ziyahlongozwa futhi zihlolwe, okuhlanganisa ukusetshenziswa kwe-ketone ne-silyl acetates enqubweni ye-polymerization. Njengoba kwakhiwa ama-polymers amasha e-silicone, cishe angathola izinhlelo zokusebenza ezintsha ezinhlobonhlobo zezimboni nemikhiqizo.

Izicelo Ezihlukahlukene Ze-Silicone

I-Silicone iyisithako esibalulekile emikhiqizweni ehlukahlukene kanye nezinto zokwakha ezisetshenziswa emikhakheni yezokwakha nezimboni. Ikhono layo lokumelana namazinga okushisa aphezulu naphansi, limelane namakhemikhali namafutha, futhi lihlale lizinzile ngaphansi kwezimo ezimbi kakhulu likwenza kube impahla enhle kakhulu yohlu lwezinhlelo zokusebenza, okuhlanganisa:

• Ama-coatings nama-adhesives
• Ama-insulators kanye ama-fillers (nansi indlela yokusebenzisa ezifanele)
• Amafutha enjini yezimoto namagiya
• Amafutha akhethekile kanye nemikhiqizo yokuqeda
• I-glazing kanye nezinto zokuqeda

Electronics kanye Aerospace Industries

Ama-Silicone nawo asetshenziswa kakhulu ezimbonini zikagesi neze-aerospace ngenxa yezakhiwo zawo ezihlukile, okuhlanganisa:

• Ukwahlukanisa okuphumelelayo nokumelana namazinga okushisa aphezulu namakhemikhali
• Ikhono lokugcwalisa izikhala kanye nokuhlinzeka nge-cushioning yezingxenye ezibucayi
• Ukusebenza okuzinzile futhi okuhlala isikhathi eside ezindaweni ezimbi kakhulu

Izicelo Zezokwelapha Nezimonyo

Ijeli ye-silicone iyisithako esibalulekile emikhiqizweni yezokwelapha nezimonyo ngenxa ye-biocompatibility yayo ephezulu kanye nekhono lokulingisa izakhiwo zezicubu zomuntu. Okunye ukusetshenziswa okuqondile kuhlanganisa:

• Ukufakelwa kwebele, ukufakwa kwesende, nokufakwa kwe-pectoral
• Amabhande kanye nokugqoka
• Amalensi wokuxhumana
• Ukwelashwa kwezibazi kanye nemikhiqizo yokunakekela amanxeba

Izicelo ezikhethekile

I-Silicone nayo isetshenziswa ezinhlobonhlobo zezicelo ezikhethekile, kufaka phakathi:

• Ukukhiqizwa kwerabha kanye ne-resin
• I-Microfluidics nezinye izingxenye ezinemba okuphezulu
• Imikhiqizo yemboni kawoyela negesi
• Ama-adhesives asebenzayo futhi ahlala isikhathi eside

Ikusasa Lezicelo Ze-Silicone

Njengoba ubuchwepheshe nezindlela zokucubungula ziqhubeka nokuthuthuka, ububanzi bezicelo ze-silicone buzoqhubeka nokukhula. Kusukela ekuthuthukiseni izinto ezintsha nezinhlanganisela kuya ekuklameni izingxenye ezithile nezakhiwo, i-silicone izohlala iyisithako esibalulekile emikhiqizweni nasezimbonini ezihlukahlukene.

Kungani i-Silicone iyisinqumo esiphephile futhi esinobungani nemvelo

I-Silicone iyisinqumo esithandwayo emikhiqizweni eminingi ngenxa yezici zayo zokuphepha. Nazi ezinye izizathu zokuthi kungani:

• Awekho ama-Phthalates: Ama-Phthalates angamakhemikhali avame ukutholakala kumapulasitiki futhi angaba yingozi empilweni yabantu. I-Silicone ayinawo ama-phthalates, okwenza kube enye indlela ephephile kunepulasitiki.
• Ayikho i-BPA: I-Bisphenol A (BPA) enye ikhemikhali etholakala kumapulasitiki angaba nemiphumela emibi yezempilo. I-Silicone imahhala ku-BPA, okuyenza ibe yindlela enempilo yokugcina ukudla nokupheka.
• I-Health Canada Igunyaziwe: I-Health Canada ithathe i-silicone yezinga lokudla iphephile ekuphekeni nasekugcineni ukudla. Ayisabela ngokudla noma iziphuzo, okwenza kube ukukhetha okuphephile ukusetshenziswa kwekhishi.

Ukucatshangelwa Kwezemvelo

I-silicone ayiphephile kuphela kubantu, kodwa futhi iyisinqumo esivumelana nemvelo. Nasi isizathu:

• Ihlala isikhathi eside: I-Silicone iyinto ehlala isikhathi eside engahlala iminyaka, inciphisa isidingo sokushintshwa njalo nokumosha.
• Ingaphinde isetshenziswe: I-Silicone ingagaywa kabusha, inciphise umthelela wayo endaweni ezungezile.
• Ubuthi obuphansi: I-Silicone yinto enobuthi obuphansi, okusho ukuthi ayikhiphi amakhemikhali ayingozi endaweni ngesikhathi sokukhiqiza noma ukulahlwa.

I-Silicone vs Plastic: Iyiphi enye indlela engcono?

I-Silicone nepulasitiki yizinhlobo ezimbili zezinto ezisetshenziswa kakhulu ezimbonini ezahlukahlukene. I-Plastiki yinto yendabuko esetshenziswe amashumi eminyaka, kuyilapho i-silicone iyinhlanganisela entsha ethole ukuthandwa eminyakeni yamuva. Zombili izinto ezisetshenziswayo zinezakhiwo zazo ezihlukile kanye nokusetshenziswa kwazo, kodwa kunomehluko obalulekile phakathi kwazo.

Umehluko Ngezakhiwo

Omunye umehluko omkhulu phakathi kwe-silicone nepulasitiki yindlela ezikhiqizwa ngayo. I-silicone ikhiqizwa nge-silicon, into eyenzeka ngokwemvelo ezinzile, kuyilapho ipulasitiki yenziwe ngezinhlanganisela zokwenziwa. Lokhu kusho ukuthi i-silicone inezinto ezithile ipulasitiki engenazo, njengokuqina nokumelana nokushisa. I-Silicone ingamelana namazinga okushisa aphakeme kunepulasitiki, iyenze ilungele ukusetshenziswa ekuphekeni nasekubhakeni impahla.

Ukufana Nomehluko Ekubunjweni Nokubumbeka

Nakuba i-silicone iqinile kunepulasitiki, ayiguquguquki. Ngeke ibunjwe ibe yizimo ezahlukene njengekani lepulasitiki. Kodwa-ke, i-silicone ingabunjwa ibe yizimo ezihlukahlukene, okwenza kube ukukhetha okuthandwayo kwezitsha nemishini yasekhishini. Ipulasitiki nayo ijwayele ukusetshenziselwa izitsha nezinto zasekhishini, kodwa ayiqinile njenge-silicone.

Ukuphepha kanye Nezakhiwo zikagesi

I-Silicone nayo yaziwa ngokuphepha kwayo kanye nezakhiwo zikagesi. Yinto engenabuthi engakhiphi amakhemikhali ayingozi uma ifudunyezwa, okuyenza iphephe ukusetshenziswa ekuphekeni nasekubhakeni. Iphinde ibe isivikelo esihle sikagesi, okuyenza ilungele ukusetshenziswa ezintweni zikagesi. Ipulasitiki, ngakolunye uhlangothi, ingakhipha amakhemikhali ayingozi lapho ifudunyezwa, ikwenze kube inketho ephephile kakhulu yokupheka nokubhaka.

Ukuhlanza nokulondoloza

Uma kuziwa ekuhlanzeni nasekunakekeleni, i-silicone nepulasitiki inokufana nokuhluka okuthile. Zombili izinto zokwakha zingahlanzwa kumshini wokuwasha izitsha, kodwa i-silicone ihlala isikhathi eside futhi ingamelana namazinga okushisa aphezulu. Ipulasitiki ingasonteka futhi incibilike emazingeni okushisa aphezulu, iyenze iqine kakhulu kune-silicone.

Isiphetho

Ngakho-ke, i-silicone iyinto eyenziwe nge-silicon nomoya-mpilo, futhi isetshenziselwa izinto eziningi. 

Uyabona ukuthi kungani idume kangaka manje, akunjalo? Ngakho-ke, ungesabi ukubuza imibuzo uma ungaqiniseki ngokuthile. Ungahlala ucela usizo kumngane. 

Futhi ungakhohlwa ukuhlola umhlahlandlela wethu ukuthola eminye imininingwane nge-silicone.

Ngingu-Joost Nusselder, umsunguli we-Tools Doctor, umakethi wokuqukethwe, kanye nobaba. Ngiyakuthanda ukuzama okokusebenza okusha, futhi kanye nethimba lami ngidale izindatshana zebhulogi ezijulile kusukela ngo-2016 ukuze ngisize abafundi abathembekile ngamathuluzi namathiphu okwenza.